Writer: Brigadier Khan Ahmed Sufyan, retired & Lieutenant Colonel Dr Sayyam Bin Saeed, AEC

In the aftermath of the fading away of the 9000 years old Indus Valley civilisation of Pakistan, the politico-military threat of foreign invasions forced ancient Pakistanis to raise organised military forces. Over a period of time, organisational changes were necessitated due to the nature of enemy threats, induction of various weapons and weapon carrying mobile platforms, which became essential to thwart enemy invasions, both from the west as well as from the east. The existence of numerous ancient battlefields and forts, ancient weapons and military artefacts etcetera, are testament to the well-established linkages between the people and the politico-cultural, societal and military heritage of Pakistan, since ancient times.

War Elephants

War elephants were first used in battle in ancient Pakistan against the invading Assyrian Army in 800 BC. From ancient Pakistanis, this practice spread westwards into the Mediterranean and eastwards towards South East Asia. The ancient Pakistanis captured wild elephants, tamed them and trained these beasts as a mobile warfighting platform. Specific training courses were charted out for preparing the war elephants for battle:-

• Flag signal training was imparted so that various orders could be given to the elephant squadrons.
• Obstacle courses were organised to train them to negotiate natural or manmade obstacles.
• Marching in different formations was practiced in order to employ varied tactics during battle.
• Training to trample enemy cavalry horses and foot soldiers.
• Training to encounter and defeat the enemy’s war elephants, in a direct engagement.
• Charging against forts and buildings.
• Training mounted soldiers in the use of stand-off weaponry and close combat.
• Training of the mahout (driver).

Generally war elephants were deployed either in front of the army, or in the centre. The charge of massed war elephants could achieve a speed of 30 kilometres per hour, and it would become extremely difficult to stop their momentum. Over a period of time war elephants were also equipped with integral armour, which provided them additional protection on the battlefield. During the Battle of Hydaspes in 326 BC, between Raja Porus and Alexander, Porus deployed his elephants in the front, with each elephant at a distance of 40-100 feet, while the remaining fighting echelons rallied around the elephants. Interestingly, a teeth-to-tail ratio was worked out between the war elephants and the elephants needed for logistical support. The number of war elephants was much less as compared to those used for logistical support. After the advent of gunpowder, the use of war elephants gradually faded out.

Chariots

The horse was not a locally found animal in Ancient Pakistan during the Indus Valley civilisation. It was introduced in Pakistan by people migrating from Central Asia, around 1500 BC. Subsequently, it became a major item of trade and later was also locally bred and raised in large numbers. Introduction of the chariot as a war fighting platform in Pakistan therefore, was late in happening.

The chariots developed by ancient Pakistanis were different from the two-wheeled lighter chariots used by Egyptians, Greeks and Romans. The local chariots were larger, heavier and compact platforms mounted on 4 or 8 spoked wheels, and were pulled by 4-6 horses. The chariot crew consisted of 4-6 soldiers comprising the commander, driver and 2-4 archers who also carried shields, swords and lances for close combat. Unlike the long bows carried by infantry archers, the chariot archers carried smaller bows and arrows. The chariots were not generally used for outflanking movements. These would be lined up abreast in hundreds, ahead of the infantry, and while on-board archers rained arrows from a higher platform and stand-off distance, they would charge straight at the enemy ranks, crushing anyone in their path. The ancient Pakistanis later also added scythed chariots in their arsenal, featuring sharp blades attached to the wheel hubs, which would cause dismember or kill enemy soldiers falling in their path. The use of chariots gradually faded out when counter tactics supported by well-trained infantry and cavalry borne archers, reduced their efficacy on the battlefield.

Cavalry

When locally bred and raised horses were available in some numbers, the use of horses in battle emerged during the 9th century AD. However, due to paucity of horses, the military force structure of that time could not field large cavalry contingents, as compared to the invading armies. The local cavalry carried curved swords and shields, but not bows and arrows. The horsemen initially wore leather breast plates and bronze plated helmets for protection. Later, with the availability of iron ore, the protective gear improved considerably.

Over time, the cavalry contingent was raised, housed and trained as a separate fighting force. The local cavalry was effectively used for:-

• Charging and piercing through the enemy’s front, flanks and rear.
• Safety and security for the entrenched positions.
• Obstruction of enemy’s logistics and supplies.
• Blocking of enemy reinforcements.
• Swift response to any developing situation.
• Protection of the army’s flanks.
• Pursuing retreating enemy forces.
• Speedy communications with echelons deployed at a distance.

With the passage of time, cavalry became an indispensable part of the army. From the Huns to the Turks, the age of cavalry dominated life’s scene. Many rock carvings in central Punjab in Pakistan, show men riding, even standing on horseback, brandishing their swords and shooting arrows.

Infantry

The mainstay of the army since ancient times has always been the infantry. The ancient infantry carried swords and bamboo spears with metal heads. For safety they carried shields made of bamboo covered with leather, wore leather cuirasses and leather helmets. As the metal was not so commonly available, only the elite wore metal cuirasses and metal helmets. The infantry wore white cotton dress. The upper garment covered the shoulders and the lower garment reached the ankles.

Infantry soldiers were properly trained under dedicated commanders, not only in infantry warfare but also in combined operations with other fighting echelons. Generally the infantry was used in various defensive and offensive formations, supported by war elephants, heavy chariots, cavalry and archers. Battles were planned as a combined operation, wherein a suitable environment was created through integrated application of war elephants, heavy chariots and cavalry, while the infantry remained the decisive arm of battle.

Artillery and Rocket Forces

During the 13th century, Mongols started making incursions into Pakistan. The use of gunpowder and fire-throwing weapons by the Mongol army, made city fortifications falling in the path of Mughal incursion in Pakistan vulnerable, and these were considered obsolete. These had to be redesigned, and ditches were dug around forts as well. During these Mongol incursions, some Mongols who were considered experts in the art of fire-throwing weapons, deserted the Mongol Army and joined local forces. These Mongols thus introduced muskets, artillery guns and bamboo-filled rocketry.

Ghubar Khana

A unique regiment was raised in Ranjit Singh’s Army in Punjab, Pakistan. The regiment was called Ghubar Khana (dust raising). Colonel Hassan Ali Khan was the commander of Ghubar Khana. The regiment was created to throw dust in the air and like a smoke screen, to hide troop movements, and to deceive and confuse the enemy about the direction of attack. Relevant textual documents are available in Faqir Khana Museum in Lahore, Pakistan.

Notes

• Konstantin Nossov, War Elephants (Oxford: Osprey Publishing Ltd, 2012).
• John M. Kistler, Animals in the Military: From Hannibal’s Elephants to the Dolphins of the U.S. Navy (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2011).
• Noor Ali, Gabriel R. Diaz, James McLaughlin and Laura Murray, “The Influence of Weapons and Armours Between Persia, India and Greece During Iron Age” (Project Report, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, 2012), accessed November 21, 2021, https://web.wpi.edu/academics/me/IMDC/IQP%20Website/reports/1112/pig.pdf
• Arrian, Edward James Chinnock, Arrian’s Anabasis of Alexander ; and, Indica (London; New York: G. Bell & Sons, 1893)
• R. Shamasastry, Arthashastra by Kautilya, 2nd ed. (Maysor: Sri raghuveer printing Press, 1951), also available at: https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.900/page/n5/mode/2up.
• Jonathan M. Kenoyer, Kimberley Heuston, The Ancient South Asian World (USA: Oxford University Press, 2005).
• Sarva Daman Singh, Ancient Indian Warfare: With Special Reference to the Vedic Period (New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Pub, 1990).
• Arrian, Anabasis of Alexander, trans. P. A. Brunt (Massachusetts, US: Harvard University Press, 1976).
• Jhonny Torrence-Spence, Historic Battlefields of Pakistan (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006).
• Jonathan Mark Kenoyer, “Wheeled Vehicles of the Indus Valley Civilization of Pakistan and India,” in Wheel and Wagon - origins of an innovation, ed. M” Fansa and S. Burmeister, (Madison: University of Wisconsin, 2004), 87-106, also available at: https://www.harappa.com/sites/default/files/pdf/Kenoyer2004_Wheeled%20Vehicles%20of%20 the%20Indus%20Valley%20Civilizatio.pdf.
• Frank L. Holt, Alexander the Great and the Mystery of the Elephant Medallions (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003).
• Ahmad Hasan Dani, History of Pakistan: Pakistan Through Ages (Lahore: Sang-E-Meel Publication, 2007).
• Michael Witzel and Steve Farmer, “Horseplay In Harappa: The Indus Valley Decipherment Hoax”, Frontline, Sep 30, 2000, https://frontline.thehindu.com/cover-story/article30255049.ece.
• Amīr Khusraw Dihlavī, Khazain-ul-futuh, 2nd edition, ed. Mohammad Wahid Mirza (Islamabad: National Book Foundation, 1976).
• Iqtidar Alam Khan. “Coming of Gunpowder To The Islamic World And North India: Spotlight on the Role of the Mongols”, Journal of Asian History 30, no. 1 (1996): 27–45, http://www.jstor.org/stable/41931009.
• Textual evidence regarding Ghubar Khana available in Faqir Khana Museum, Lahore.